Reasons For Dominance Of One Party Rule Politics Essay

Reasons For Dominance Of One Party Rule Politics Essay Various authors and political analysts have criticized the one-party-system in Africa and its impact on democracy and development of the dark continent. There have been debates over the past as to whether single-state party system is the way to go for Africa, with civil societies, international organizations and local African scholars deeming the practice as barbaric, undemocratic and a system that will destroy Africa. There are several reasons why the one-party rule tendency was dominant among African countries. Consolidation among ethnicities Many African countries have experienced serious threats to their national cohesion, post-independence and ethnic clashes caused by internal disputes regarding imperative resources like land, minerals, water and power. After gaining independence, most African countries transpired into the single-party system, argued as the ideal way to bring the people together before engaging in power struggles brought about by multi-partism. Aknirade.S (2000) claims that the one-party system ensured stability within a democracy.She asserts that multi-partism and democratization is accompanied by struggle for power and division in the people among political partys lines. The jostle for the limited power will cause upheaval in the national cohesion. A single-party system ensures consolidation in the political arena and ensures that conflicts and chaos which could lead to war and mass destruction are avoided. She argues that former Tanzanian President Nyereres move to adopt single-party system was a mo ve, meant to solve the tension existing between tribes as a result of social divisions, but misinterpreted as a move out of ignorance. She further adds that the African states were observing and following suit of the European systems of governance, where legitimacy of the state was ensured before allowing competitive parties to play part. Elite fragmentation in the governance is according to her, a major cause of disruption among African states. Wars, chaos and violence A single-state system appeals unity, strength and brings about communalism and multi-party systems will bring about division among ethnic groups and economic disintegration of certain areas in a country according to many African leaders Another argument why the single-party system is suitable for the African people is the disputes brought about by elections. As trivial as it may seem, African economies have been marred with problems arising from poll violence. This is an outcome related to multi-partism where political leaders break the rules of the game to ensure a win driven by self-aggrandizement, and greed for power. It has been reported in very few cases where political leaders accept defeat during election and inciting their supporters to act. Hameso.S (2002) critiques the attitude among African leaders claiming that when changes seem eminent, political protagonists refuse to accept the outcome as fair. A recent case involved Kenya during the 2007-2008 elections, where alleged rigging caused tribes to kill other tribes. The post election violence was caused simply because the politics were tribal based. Two major tribes had their candidates as the major runners, and when one was defeated, the losing contender cried foul sparking up ethnic wars among different tribes in the country. The result was the death of thousands the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people (BBC April 13, 2008). These Kenyans claimed to kill in the name of democracy, the same democracy brought about by multi-partism.The situation was ironically solved by the power-sharing agreement between the two main candidates, insinuating a thirst for power among the leaders, a case also observed in Zimbabwe,2008(Peta.B February 4,2009). The political problem in this case is deeply rooted in the minds of Kenyans, which runs deep along tribal lines, and how to change the perception of the people is still a hard task, and its indeed a sad case. This is blamed on the exemption of some tribes in the nation building so competitive politics is definitely ethnic based. Another unfortunate incident brought about by the struggle for power in multi-party states was the arrests and unrests in Senegal in 1988, where riots and chaos erupted after Abdou Diof was re-elected as President (Brooke.J March 6, 1988).Some people argue that the only way such problems can be avoided is by reverting to the good old system of single-party rule. Illiteracy and ignorance among Africans Otite.J (September 2009) states that there exists a positive correlation between education and peace. In a continent where the literacy and comprehension level is high, then democracy is exercised better and the people know the need to decentralize power in the government and advocate peacefully for that move. When a large population of a country is illiterate, the people are unaware of what rights are entitled to them and are taken advantage of, by the corrupt and selfish leaders who can destroy the country beyond repair. The case was so during the single-party ruling system and Africans did not know about the good governance of a country and believed what their leaders conveyed to them. Democracy according to some leaders is an alien concept, derived from the West, and that illiteracy and a miniscule middle class will make it impossible in Africa .The context of that statement is true to some extent. Africa has the highest percentage of illiteracy in the world and percentage was higher in the post-colonialism days African intellectuals however dismiss the above comment of illiteracy by saying such skepticism, is a major cause of the downfall and through empowerment and knowledge, the situation can be changed. A Guinean journalist, Siradiou Diallo disagrees and is quoted to say that These are only politicians formulas and slogans designed to abuse and dupe public opinion. The question as to whether Africans can overcome this illiteracy and take control of their own destiny is doubted when the development is slow-paced and the educational, political and economic situation is terrible compared to the other continents. (Brooke .J March 6, 1988) The lack of democratic thinking ways in Africans has encouraged manipulation and exploitation by these leaders who managed to convince the people that single-party rule was the ideal system of rule. Fragile media and a deceptive civil society The medias role in promoting democracy and transparency in issues governing a country is indisputably important in every society. The press has a right and the freedom to articulately inform the public about the happenings, regarding national issues and also inform the public about their democratic rights. They have the power to reveal atrocities and misuse of power being conducted by any government body regardless of status and position. Basically the medias role is to inform, educate and empower the people. Through the media, people are well-versed on certain happenings and can call for action to change the situation. These media privileges definitely clash, with any government that has a single-party system because democracy is limited to some extent. In those post-colonial times, the existing media was inactive and in some countries non-existent. The existing media houses were government owned and controlled and any information that portrayed the government in any negative way was discarded. Harsh legal laws were in place to deal with the perpetrators and discourage any form of unauthorized reporting. Sadly in the present day, some media houses are still controlled by the government. The media according to Hameso.S (2002) had to operate under strict controls placed by the single-party states. The media was also monopolized with one broadcast house available in most countries e.g. in Kenya, Voice of Kenya was a government owned and controlled broadcasting house. The adversial relationship between the media and the government can be traced back to the dictatorship rules after colonialism, where media was stifled and media people tortured and jailed for oppressing the government. The information had to be approved by the government, before being conveyed to the people, undermining the basic function of media i.e. democratizing communication. Therefore the African people lacked a channel through which they could air their grievances and the acts of government were kept secret and out of the open. Another significant contributor to the system was the illusive civil society. It is common to find lobby groups in any country fighting for human rights and good governance. Civil societies did exist back then but their impact was not felt like the medias. Hameso.S (2002) argues that civil societies are perceived to be the groups distinct from the state yet they interact with the state and influence the state. He views association as the thin line between being independent and involved with the state. The civil societies are supposed to fight for the rights of the common good, yet during despotic rules, most civil societies were accused of being absorbed into the selfish needs of the government. The descent and composition of these groups was first of all ambivalent, with the question on, who represented these groups, being raised. These civil societies dealt with complex issues regarding governance and with most of Africas population being illiterate, eyebrows were raised on whether the societies actually represented the issues of the common good or if their interests were based on the elite few, or if they were being driven by the one-party governments (Hameso.S,2002). These civil societies and media are supposed to act as watchdogs to the government and play a significant role in bringing about democracy. The lack of power and manipulation by the governments of these groups during post-colonial times provided the opportunity for the communist leaders to establish the single-party states without external pressure. The value dilemma According to Hameso.S (2002) the single-party system was further fueled by the notion that conformance of the western values and systems including the multi-party system was unorthodox and objectionable. Adoption of the system would lead to weakening of community ties and bring about confusion of interests among Africans. Africans believed that the adoption of the multi-party system would show that they did not believe in their own values, beliefs and opinions and instead chose to blindly follow the traditions of the West, who had earlier on robbed them of their national pride during colonial times and oppressed them for decades. It was feared that the imposition of Western-Style ruling, anomalies would occur including conflicts. The consequences are further proved after the adoption of multi-partism, where leaders call for a return to the single-party states, wherever violence occurs, and blaming multipartism as the focal cause for power struggles. Poor governance When the colonialists left, African states were left in weak conditions, with the power to rule left in the hands of a few who had learnt from the colonialists. Even these few individuals did not have the proper tools and skills to govern a nation and lacked knowledge on how to institutionalize and consolidate the pre-existing national institutions. The leaders did not have an idea on how to allow fragmentation of other independent parties and maintain the political balance and economic stability as well. This responsibility was hard since the people expected change .The governments were not properly institutionalized with the African leaders constantly seeking help from other Western countries in terms of aid, economic and political advice.Stambuli.K.P (2002) described this as a post-colonial African design of government who used democracy as an excuse to employ the same divide and rule policy that the colonial powers used. They tightened their grip around power and filled the Afric an people with false hope and mediocre ideologies of transforming the countries. The leaders postured themselves as powerhouses, with no opposition or an enlightened nation to oppose them, ensuring their tyrannical rules subsisted for decades. Power transition. The challenges involved in transitioning a single-party state to a multi-party one, encourage the people to maintain the existing conditions. The frail economics and fear of uprisings is also another validation to the previous dominance of these systems of governance. Transfer of power in many states brought about violence and this discouraged the people to challenge the ruling parties fearing the situation would get worse and could paralyze development completely. According to Aringo.P.O (October, 2004) says the transition in some countries e.g. Kenya was faced with oppression with the opposition parties being treated as enemies. It is a common trend where the opposition party members are arrested and implicated with crimes they didnt even commit as a way of silencing them. Cases of alleged murders of key front members of opposition members were not unheard of, and people were not willing to risk their lives in the name of democracy.Assasinations and ethnic genocides were crimes com mitted just to stifle the other side. Leaders disregarded the opposition parties in broad daylight, for example in Kenya, President Kenyatta referred to the opposition party members as snakes. Why the single party system failed It is obvious that a revolution has taken place over the past half-century with only Eritrea existing as a single-state party. The political metamorphosis has led to the existence of opposition parties in many countries, and some have even taken over, the preceding single-state parties. Neuberger.B (n.d) argues that the system is not the solution for African countries because a partys long term stay in power does not necessarily amount to success. He claims that parties in some African countries have been in power for decades yet their portfolios have no significant improvement, to prove their long stay and service to the people. He claims that cruel, selfish minded regimes have survived for decades and in some cases some regimes keen on change and reforms have been overthrown within a short time of their ruling, hinting the fact that maybe people are susceptible to change and do not want to change the status-quo, in fear of worse future repercussions .He suggests three criteria that can be used to determine if one-party states are necessary in the African continent;stability,economic development and nation-building, with regard to factors of democracy and human rights. Neuberger.B (n.d) seeks to establish if the existence of a single-party state affects the performance of the nation, by challenging the people to use the three criteria to rate their countrys development, and hints that very few countries could meet the requirements of the named criteria. Chief Emeka Anyaoku, a former Secretary General of the Commonwealth is a great strong critic of the single-party state, claims that the former governing system is the root cause of all troubles facing the continent. He attributes all the developmental problems being faced as consequences of the rulings in the post-independence era, characterized by single-party systems. He is quoted to say that Nothing has done more to destroy Africa ,than one party rule and military dictatorship(Ghana News Agency November 10,2007).He claims the military coups brought about by the single party governments, not only caused the democratic destruction of the African people but caused economic downfalls in the then sensitive growing economy. He further claims that single-state parties curtailed the efforts of productivity and development that enabled a golden age of sycophancy, and resulted in a one-man rule and bred mediocrity (GNA November 10, 2007) He says that the prime cause of all these problems was as a result of these systems that brought about corruption, oppression and ethnicity tension between tribes and nations, leading to wars. He further adds that these financial problems led to the dependency of foreign aid, like a drug, and brought about massive economical problems that will take years to solve, claiming that the greatest regret is not that the problem was brought about by non-Africans, but was self-imposed. The downfall of the single-party system can be attributed to certain things. Gentili.M.A (2005) presented a report at a global forum in Seoul and claimed that one of the contributing factors to the failure of the single-party system was the economic liberalisation of the 80s.The governments had failed to deliver what they had promised and the common people felt betrayed, leading to political democratization. The people felt that through competitive politics and opposing parties, the government would feel pressured to perform. By the end of the 80s structural adjustment in the economies was prevalent, and the interference and control of the single-party government was noted as a root cause of the economic challenges being faced. This was a crucial field and Africans felt the need to protect their own futures by developing their countries through economic stabilization and privatisation.This could only be done through abolishing the system and so began the democratization process. This progression was characterized by establishment of new-fangled norms and poli cies, institution building and good governance. The existence of multi-partism was the first step towards achieving these developmental goals, through free and fair elections and promotion of the media and civil societies as watchdogs. Another reason leading to the failure of the one-party rule was the failure of political and socio-economic development ,and a good example is Ghana which was the first African country to gain independence in 1957.Mariam.A (January 25, 2010)verifies that President Kwame Nkrumah established a one-party system rule adopting socialist ideologies. Within a year of his rule, he had already transformed himself into a power-hungry despot, by establishing a fiery rule where his actions were unopposed, conferring to himself all the powers, whether constitutional or judicial. He opposed any criticism and laid down callous labour laws, by declaring strikes illegal. He was known for making unlawful arrests for any one suspected of sedition and his irrational economic plans of the state. Ghana was at the time a large exporter of cocoa and was the most successful countries in Africa, but due to Nkrumahs power misuse, Ghanas economy failed miserably making it one of the poorest countries in the con tinent. The downhill performance of the economy prompted the coup de tat which saw him being overthrown. Countries such as Tanzania also abolished the one-party system after the repercussions impacted their economy. The Ujamaa system of collectivized farming also led to a plunge in the agriculture production in Tanzania. He also claims that the one-party system has failed miserably in increasing national unity and preventing clashes as civil wars, genocides and corruption are rampant since pre-colonial times.Mariam.A (January 25, 2010) further claims that these dictatorships are the root cause of African problems of famine, corruption, economic under-development, political unrest and over-dependence on foreign aid. He claims that the social, political and economic ills facing Africa will be solved if the people are wise enough to realize the games posed by these political leaders. He claims that the leaders re-brand themselves by joining new parties but still have the same selfish intentions. Africans must be empowered to in an open, and informed multiparty process. He claims that the argument of Africa not being tailored to handle the Western system of multi-partism as layered sophistry and paralogism of African leaders who are obviously power-hungry. Pan-Africanism and pressure from the international bodies led to the dissolution of these systems. These leaders practically, destroyed the economic status of their countries and in sought help from the international bodies such as IMF, World Bank and other organizations. Democracy was a pre-requisite to the granting of these aids to most countries, and to salvage the situation, many leaders complied with this demand. Though many economies resisted at first, the situation became worse when the aid reductions were implemented, placing these leaders in a dilemma. The donors advocated for privatization which could be better managed through a multi-party system. Stambuli.K.P (2002) in his paper claims that these auspices influenced African states to end the restrictive trade laws and motioned the process of privatization, which ultimately led to the abolishing of the one-party system. Conclusion It is clearly evident that the invasion of multi-partism has not compelled the changes that the people expected. The single party system way of operation is still being observed in many countries up to the present day. The conversion of the party systems in Africa over the years has verified beyond a shadow of doubt, that the reasons why African countries are still to revive themselves is not because of the previous non-existence of opposition parties, but within the leaders themselves. In a continent where the leaders openly commit iniquities against people and declare themselves unsurmountable, getting rid of these leaders will be the first step towards practicing democracy. The African people should be empowered and education spread to all corners of the struggling continent and help eradicate this virus of incompetent leaders that has been eating into the core of the continents own existence.

Communication Between Patients And Professionals Health And Social Care Essay

This chapter examines bing surveies on pass oning hazard utilizing different formats, discusses the effectivity, truth and presentation of patient hazards information, peculiarly looking at surveies conducted on communicating with immature patients. 3.4. Hazard Communication – Existing surveies on usage of in writing tools for a/effective hazard communicating. Effective and affectional hazard communicating is of import for both patients and medical professionals and has an impact on decision-making, diagnosing, proving, farther medical intervention and successful recovery. To let people to do an informed determination, peculiarly in footings of hazard, can besides assist to better patient-doctor relationship. It is non merely a affair of content but besides how information is presented. ( Timmermans, Molewijk, Stiggelbout and Kevit 2004 ) . Many surveies have been conducted refering patients ‘ demands in footings of informed picks. ( e. g. Panton, R, 2009, Ulph, F. , 2008, Peters, E. , 2008, Coad, J. , 2007, Price M. , 2007, Paling, J. , 2003, Timmermans, D.R.M. , 2004, 2005, Briss, P. , 2004 O'Connor, A. , 2002, Fischhoff B. , 1999 ) . Paling points out that â€Å" effectual hazard communicating is the footing for informed patient consent for medical intervention, yet until late physicians have lagged behind other professionals in larning this accomplishment † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . â€Å" Professionals need to back up patients in doing picks by turning natural information into information that is more helpful to the treatments than the information † ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . Encouraged by a figure of research workers wellness professionals late more frequently seek to enable patients to adequately grok the hazard as its apprehension can be important for appropriate decision-making. They are confron ting a scope of obstructions and jobs of different sorts. Effective hazard communicating, says Fischhoff, â€Å" uses audience members ‘ clip good by supplying them with the information that they most need, in a signifier that they can easy grok † . Furthermore, he stresses, that â€Å" carry throughing this undertaking can be difficult because of jobs with both the sender and the receiving system † ( Fischhoff B. , 1999 ) . Communicating hazard is surely non an easy procedure because of its complexness and therefore can be disputing for the wellness professionals. Thun gives a brief overview of chief communicating troubles which American physicians are fighting with ; such as patient ‘s hapless numeracy accomplishments, limited cognition about the causes of malignant neoplastic disease, or hazard of malignant neoplastic disease, and besides jobs with remembering or construing chances ( Thun, M. , J. , 2008 ) . Many different dimensions and built-in uncertainnesss need to be taken into history, says Paling. Recent findings on the perceptual experience of hazards and benefits from a psychological position further perplex the undertaking. † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . Paling besides brings out the illustration of Lloyd and co-workers ‘ research, which suggested that â€Å" patients merely pull out the effect of any information-not the detail-to brand determinations † ( Lloyd A, et Al. 2001 ) . Furthermore, most patients ‘ comprehension of hazards is chiefly determined non by informations they receive but by emotions ( Paling, J. , 2003, Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005, Klein, W. , M. , P. , Stefanek, M. , E. , 2007, Finucane, M.L. , 2008 ) . â€Å" Therefore, although most physicians can readily supply a competent history of the biomedical informations associating to a peculiar hazard, this alone is likely to be unfertile. If the patient ‘s feelings skew an apprehension of the facts, so his or her ability to do nonsubjective determinations about clinical direction will be impaired † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . 3.4.2 Using ocular AIDSs for showing chances Paling advises wellness professionals to utilize appropriate ocular AIDSs therefore patients from all backgrounds can understand their accounts. â€Å" Even in developed states significant Numberss of patients have hapless numeracy or literacy accomplishments and are likely to hold trouble understanding the significance of the Numberss that physicians wish to portion. For these people, ocular AIDSs can assist by demoing the Numberss in position. The pie chart ( pioneered by Florence Nightingale, fig. 1 ) is a premier illustration of a simple yet effectual ocular assistance, helpful to people at all academic degrees † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . Figure 1. Diagram of the Causes of Mortality in the Army in the East, graphs frequently described as roses, created by Florence Nightingale. As a innovator in set uping the importance of sanitation in infirmaries she aimed to pass on the gathered informations on associating decease tolls in infirmaries to cleanliness in most, as she assumed, effectual manner by utilizing in writing representation, similar to normally used now pie charts. ( www.understandinucerntainty.org/node/213 ) Paling has developed several tools for ‘helping to explicate the hazards of different orders of likeliness ‘ ( figs 2-3 ) . Figure 2. Paling PaletteA © -for exposing most medical hazards with a chance of higher than 1 in 1000. The physician or familial counselor fills in the relevant informations while sitting beside the patient. This format shows the estimations of positive and negative results at the same time and nowadayss unambiguous ocular representations of the chances. The patient may take a printout place for farther consideration, or the signifier may be signed by the patient and a transcript kept on file ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . The manner physicians communicate hazard can impact a patient ‘s perceptual experience of hazards and hence, as Paling emphasiss that numerical informations should be enhanced with verbal accounts, physicians are supposed to utilize absolute Numberss alternatively utilizing comparative hazards or per centum betterments, he advises besides saying the odds from a positive and negative position and utilizing a consistent denominator. Figure 3. Revised Paling Perspective ScaleA © – for exposing hazards covering widely different orders of magnitude ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) ..O'Connor reexamining present determination AIDSs ; include brochures, tapes, videodisk, synergistic computing machine plans, or paper based charts, sees them as valuable and helpful for presentation and treatment of hazard information with patients. However, as she concludes â€Å" there go on to be excessively few surveies to find the effects of determination AIDSs on continuity with the chosen therapy, costs, or resource usage † and there is a demand for farther rating. ( O'Connor A. , 2009 ) . Timmermans distinguishes three formats for pass oning hazard: verbal footings, a numerical format, and a graphical format. Using artworks is considered to be utile for showing uncertainness. â€Å" When a thing is hard to understand, he says, it seems obvious to utilize artworks to explicate it. Graphical hazard information is assumed to assist persons to understand and sum up hazard information † ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005 ) . However harmonizing to Timmermans surveies there is no important grounds on high quality of graphic over other formats in footings of pass oning hazards. However the presentation of icons was evaluated as really helpful, with indicant that grouped icons might be better than allocated icons. Vertical bars were evaluated as less suited manner to show hazard ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , et Al, 2004 ) . Center for Prenatal Diagnosis of the VU University Medical Center uses icons to explicate the consequences of a screening trial, ( Fig. 5 ) ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005 ) . Similar to Paling Palettes nevertheless, alternatively of impersonal human silhouettes, emoticons were introduced. Smiling faces represent non affected persons whereas black points show the figure of opportunities of being pregnant with a kid with Down ‘s syndrome. Figure 5. Example of the hazard formats: the 1-year mortality hazards of the low-risk patient as presented, severally, in the numerical format, as stacked perpendicular bars and as icons ( indiscriminately located icons ) ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , et Al, 2004 ) . Figure. 6. The left image shows a normal opportunity ( i.e. non increased ) and the right image shows an increased opportunity of being pregnant with a kid with Down ‘s syndrome. ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005 ) Parallel hazard pass oning in writing formats, derived from those designed by Paling, are presented by Edwards. One of them combines numerical informations, graduated table, and linguistic communication informations conveying degrees of increasing hazard ( figure 7 ) ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . Figure 7. Hazard linguistic communication proposal, derived from Paling Edwards nowadayss besides Visual Rx, an available online in writing tool, which is designed to assist in the procedure of interlingual rendition of grounds into pattern, the comparative step into an absolute step. And once more emoticons represent human participants, this clip four types of faces differing in facial look and colorss to mean the informations, fig.8. Figure 8. Portrayal of hazards and benefits of intervention with antibiotics for otitis media designed with Visual Rx, a plan that calculates Numberss needed to handle from the pooled consequences of a metaA ­analysis and bring forth a graphical show of the consequence ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . For original illustrations visit: www.nntonline.net/visualrx/examples/ Edwards ‘ surveies emphasize that information must be presented clearly. â€Å" Sometimes numerical informations entirely may do. The ocular presentation of hazard information has besides been explored. Some empirical surveies suggest that many patients prefer simple saloon charts to other formats such as thermometer graduated tables, crowd figures ( for illustration, demoing how many of 100 people are affected ) , survival curves, or pie charts ; other surveies have found that people may prefer presentations that lead them to less accurate perceptual experiences of hazard † ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . Lipkus and Holland present an overview of in writing formats for pass oning hazard ; they give the illustrations of ocular shows that have been introduced to supply effectual hazard information such as hazard ladder, Chernoff faces, line graphs, points, marbles, pie chart and histogram. Figure 9. Examples of ocular shows that have been used to pass on hazard. Research workers have used the following to exemplify hazard: ( a ) hazard ladder ; ( B ) stick, human, Chernoff faces ; ( degree Celsius ) line graph ; ( vitamin D ) points and Xs in which the Xs represent those affected by the jeopardy ; ( vitamin E ) marbles ; ( degree Fahrenheit ) pie chart ( informations are fabricated ) ; and histogram. Reprinted with permission of writer. ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Figure 10. Example of a Nightingale rose. For each rose, a circle is divided into multiple parts of equal angle ; the radius of each piece is used to picture the measure of involvement. Because the informations for each season are in the same place in each rose, it is easy to compare them. The informations are fictional. ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Figure 11. Example of a hazard ladder conveying the hazards of Rn. Radon degrees are being compared with the figure of coffin nails smoked and the figure of excess malignant neoplastic disease deceases. On the right, the ladder displays an action criterion ( indicating pointer of 4 pCi/L ) , along with advice on how to construe Rn degrees and the action that is required, if any. Reprinted with permission of writer. ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Figure 12. Pie chart developed by the National Cancer Institute and evaluated by focal point groups to picture lung malignant neoplastic disease hazard as a map of smoke and Rn exposure. Reprinted with permission from the National Cancer Institute ( 49 ) . Fig. 13. A graph with a low data-ink ratio. Notice the sum of ink devoted to objects that do non incorporate the information of involvement ( images, busy background, horizontal grid lines, patterned fills on the bars, etc. ) ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) . Figure 14. Ibrekk and Morgan ‘s recommended graphical secret plans to pass on quantitative uncertainnesss. This illustration of a cumulative distribution map is plotted straight below the chance denseness map with the same horizontal graduated table and with the location of the mean marked by a point. Reprinted with permission. ( Ibrekk H, Morgan GM, 1987, in Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Showing these information format illustrations, Lipkus and Holland were on the early phases of their research on how â€Å" supplying ocular shows of malignant neoplastic disease hazard per Se affects hazard perceptual experience, decision-making procedures, and, finally, behavior † . They stressed that due to multidimensionality of hazard, coactions between assorted subjects and organisations are needed. â€Å" Working coaction between experts in human factors, psychological science, sociology, psychophysics, graph perceptual experience, and the mass media is likely to take to more integrative and fresh attacks than research within a individual subject † ( Lipkus and Hollands, 1999 ) . The research indicates a demand to â€Å" determine the extent to which artworks and other visuals heighten the populace ‘s apprehension of disease hazard to ease decision-making and behavioral alteration procedures † ( Lipkus and Hollands, 1999 ) . Anckner and co-workers more late searched for rating surveies of graphs describing, chances, frequences, or opportunities of wellness events that had non been covered in Lipkus and Hollands ‘ reappraisal ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . They excluded commentaries and instructions covered already by Edwards and co-workers ( Edwards et al. , 2002 ) besides surveies of hurting graduated tables, public-service corporation steps, or illustrations that communicated dainty or insouciant relationships, and surveies in which artworks were non used as an independent variable ( Elwyn et al. , 2004, Schapira et al. , 2000 ) . Harmonizing to the findings the pick of in writing format for hazard communicating depends upon the intent ; different formats should be used for heightening quantitative apprehension or advance good arithmetic judgements, whereas others to advance behavior alteration ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Furthermore Anckner points out that â€Å" for good quantitative judgements the size of in writing component should be relative to the figure it portraits † , otherwise people can be more influenced by the size than by the figure. Research showed that part-to-whole saloon charts and part-to-whole consecutive ordered icons arrays can be used to assist viewing audiences grok the mathematical proportion ( Stone et al, 2003, Schirillo et al. , 2005 ) . Furthermore â€Å" this may assist them de-emphasise the emotional content of attach toing text † ( Anckner et al, 2006, Fagerlin A, 2005 ) . With experts and ballad users given some direction, survival curves can be utile for pulling attending to information that is otherwise ignored, such as middle-term results ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Patients can separate proportions rather successfully with part-to-whole consecutive icon arrays. However, say Anckner et al. , proportions are hard to measure in indiscriminately arranged i con arrays and perchance besides when the icons are jittered. This could account for the disfavor of random-arrangement arrays found in qualitative surveies ( Feldman-Stewart et al. , 2000 ) â€Å" Therefore, consecutive arranged icon arrays may be better than random 1s in any state of affairs that requires the spectator to gauge a proportion or compare two proportions † ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Research workers stressed that extra work may be needed to corroborate the intimation in some surveies that indiscriminately arranged icon arrays help convey the hard construct of opportunity or uncertainness ( Baty et al. , 1997, Witte K. , 1997 ) . Anckner and co-workers found that comparatively few surveies have attempted to show the even more hard construct of uncertainness around a chance estimation ( assurance intervals ) .Therefore pass oning an uncertainness in hazards â€Å" should be a subject for go oning survey, given older findings that laypeople are frequently unfamiliar with the construct of scientific uncertainness † ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . They besides province that qualitative research is of import to larn more about how patients interpret graphs, nevertheless â€Å" trusting excessively to a great extent on patients ‘ likes and disfavors may present a job because they sometimes like artworks that lead to hapless quantitative judgements † Research workers expect that future research will assist develop artworks that are both acceptable and successful in advancing quantitative judgements or behavioural results ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Furthermore they advice to take in history interactions with instruction degree, literacy, numeracy, and civilization, therefore they are of import go oning countries of research. In decision they point out that although graphs frequently seem to be more intuitive than words, the literature shows that graphical literacy is strongly affected by expertness and acquaintance with specific graphical formats. Furthermore the direction might be needed to enable patients to construe certain formats. ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . A late issued set of guidelines for making patient determination AIDSs recommends the usage of multiple hazard presentation formats ( O'Connor AM, 2007, 2009 ) . This recommendation supports the consequences of research conducted by Dolan ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Harmonizing to his survey the most preferable was a combined format ( combined augmented saloon chart + flow diagram ) and all three combined formats were more preferable than the three individual format options included in the survey, Fig. 17 ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Dolan ‘s survey has several restrictions, nevertheless there is a clear suggestion that patients may prefer combined, instead than individual, in writing hazard presentation formats and that augmented saloon charts and icon shows may be utile for conveying comparative information about little hazards to clinical determination shapers. Nevertheless Dolan suggests that farther research to corroborate and widen these findings is needed ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Whether patient penchants are affected by different coloring material strategies, axis data format, the size of the show, and other design features remains unknown. Figure 15. The augmented saloon chart. The left manus panel is a standard saloon chart demoing the full dataset. The right manus panel magnifies the differences between the two options so the magnitude of the differences can be seen more clearly ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Figure 16. The augmented icon show. The left manus panel is a standard icon show demoing the full dataset. The right manus panel magnifies the differences between the two options so the magnitude of the differences can be seen more clearly. The ruddy diamonds indicate patients with malignant neoplastic disease, the green diamonds indicate patients without malignant neoplastic disease, and the broken diamond symbol indicates malignant neoplastic diseases prevented through showing and screening-related intercessions ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Figure 13. The flow diagram. Figure 17. Example penchant comparing screenshot. This figure shows the screen used by the survey subjects to do the comparings among the hazard presentation formats. The skidder used to bespeak their strength of penchant, if any, is shown in the top panel. The magnitude of penchant was indicated in the numeral box to the right and in the linked horizontal saloon charts and pie chart below. The panel in the upper left is the bill of fare screen used to travel from one comparing to the following ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Most late Lin and co-workers carried on research on showing the hazards of fatal abnormalcy to pregnant adult females as an of import in reding prior to offering antenatal showing trials. Furthermore they province that these hazards must be balanced against the hazards of injury caused by diagnostic probes that frequently means that patients and professionals are faced with hard judgements. Research considered how these ocular presentation tools can be developed to pass on hazard more efficaciously, particularly in the quandary determination doing procedure. Related surveies have revealed that ocular presentation such as artworks ; illustration and images affect perceived hazard, attitude and behaviour. A questionnaire method was applied to this research to measure 9 different formats of dilemma determination devising tools ( Lin, F-S. et Al. 2009 ) . Figure 18. 9 different formats of dilemma state of affairs were developed in this research and all of them were adopted the same information of the hazard for pregnant adult females to gestate babes with Down ‘s syndrome, and the opportunity of amniocentesis doing abortion. Two comparative informations were juxtapose together to see if the quandary state of affairs will impact their picks, including text format, ratio informations format, proportion informations format, histogram format, pie chart format, abstract image format, distinct concrete image format ( the icons are arranged as a block and touching each other ) , consecutive concrete image format ( the icons are non touching each other ) , and a composite format ( Lin, F-S. et Al. 2009 ) . Similarly to old related research, Lin and co-workers found that different ocular tools will impact people ‘s hazard perceptual experience ; nevertheless it would non impact their picks of proving, although there is differentiation consequently to the age groups. The research shows that any instructions provided to people in any clip or any topographic points will all impact their determination devising. When seeking to pass on the intervention options with patients, the research workers advised, take patients ‘ â€Å" life manners, backgrounds, or even the societal phenomena in to consideration to supply balanced value-neutral and most helpful information to them to do appropriate determinations † ( Lin, F-S. et Al. 2009 ) . One of the surveies conducted by Fillingham on ‘best pattern in design for patient information ‘ suggests that â€Å" utilizing statistics, exposures and illustrations are amongst the most popular picks for how participants think hazard should be explained to them. Furthermore, exposure and illustrations allow people to understand and visualize processs explained within the text of a cusp † ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) . Figure 19. Hazard perceptual experience piece inspired by Paling Palette ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) Fillingham designed a scope of icons for based on the Paling Palettes information sheets. His purpose was to make an educational and synergistic signifier utilizing artworks, icons and illustrations. As an result he produced a chest malignant neoplastic disease hazard game and chest malignant neoplastic disease testing perceptual experience game and besides redesigned hazard informing cusps. Figure 16. Cervical malignant neoplastic disease hazard chart ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) Figure 20. Cervical malignant neoplastic disease reply sheet ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) Introducing icons-stickers along with a game format made a design more synergistic, which can better patient-doctor relationship by leting the hazard information to flux in both waies ; both participant and doctor can profit from, garnering of import information. Furthermore, as Fillingham suggests this game experience could be more entertaining and enjoyable than reading a text based cusp and therefore the information can be recalled more efficaciously by the participant ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) . Importantly, while transporting on his research, Fillingham managed to roll up indispensable informations on sensed hazard every bit good as participants ‘ personal penchant of text or a in writing based medium. The survey shows that patients favoured lighter and brighter colorss over darker colorss, which frequently have negative associations. Therefore the writer recommended usage of these lighter colorss within hazard cusps for positive associations. Furthermore color informations collected shows that light blue, pink and yellow were amongst the most popular/favourite colorss chosen by participants ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) . [ More about coloring material and artworks analysis in chapter 4 ] A survey conducted by Panton in her research looks at hazard information provided to parents of kids with malignant neoplastic disease. ( eCancerCare system, DePICT Roadmap cards, fig. 21, 22 ) . Parents are frequently confronted with inexplicable, complex information that is severely designed to efficaciously pass on multiple intervention options, hazards, and outcomes. Therefore â€Å" a clear apprehension of hazard is peculiarly of import in these treatments, and necessary for to the full informed consent to accomplish optimum patient attention † ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . Figure 21. eCancerCare is a system of point-of-care disease-specific databases that ‘dock ‘ with the standard electronic medical record to supply inside informations non available in the institutional record: ( a ) Individual patient informations are viewed under checks that accommodate the demands of each disease site, designed by the site group squad. For illustration, eCancerCareRB incorporates retinal drawings and digital images that provide elaborate information on intraocular tumors. ( B ) DePICT provides a graphical representation of each oculus, bespeaking the badness of disease at diagnosing ( Group D in each oculus in this instance ) with symbols bespeaking the interventions delivered ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . Figure 22. Legend and DePICT Roadmap cards stand foring interventions over 5 old ages after initial diagnosing for nine eyes showing with the same badness of intraocular retinoblastoma for Groups A to E of the International Intraocular Retinoblastoma Classification ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . Panton ‘s surveies shows that â€Å" understanding hazard is related to parent age, with older parents averaging higher tonss, irrespective of instruction attainment or first linguistic communication. Our consequences, says Panton, may besides connote that parental apprehension of hazard is related to their bid of the linguistic communication used by the clinician † ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . 3.4.3 Communicating hazard to children/young patients. Health professionals make an effort to affect kids in the determination devising procedure and supply both verbal and written information. The bulk of wellness information is designed by grownups and is in the signifier of cusps. There is no grounds whether such information is appropriate for kids. Furthermore there is still excessively little figure of surveies refering ocular hazard information addressed to kids. Which format of information is most suited for immature patients to pass on hazard? Can they comprehend hazard every bit to grownups ; does their response to the formats differ? The survey of hazardous decision-making have been comparatively rare, nevertheless several research workers have approached this complex topic and managed to develop, suited for childs, undertakings, which aim to capture developmental tendencies in hazardous decision-making procedure ( e. g. Harbaugh et al. , 2002, Reyna, V. F. , & A ; Ellis, S. C. , 1994, Schlottmann, 2000, 2001 ) . One of these conducted by Schlottmann purposes to find â€Å" kids ‘s scheme for measuring complex gambles with alternate awards for alternate results † ( Schlottmann A. , 2001 ) . To happen the winning result, a marble is shaken in a clear tubing inset with a bicolour strip. Probability is manipulated by changing the figure of little or really big awards that could be won on one result ( 1 or 10 crayons on yellow ) , while the other result carried intermediate awards ( 3 or 6 crayons on blue ) . Children judged how happy a marionette would be to play the game, the judgement taken as a step of Expected Value, fig. 23 ( Schlottmann A. , 2001 ) . Figure 23. Conventional of two sample games. A marble could set down on either tubing section, and the marionette would win the award placed by that section. The two games illustrate that the same physical cue has different significance in the context of different games: In the top illustration, the one unit xanthous section represents.2 chance, in the bottom illustration.5. In the top illustration, the six crayon award for bluish makes it the higher value, hazardous option, but in the bottom illustration this is the lower value certain thing. ( Schlottmann, A. , 2001 ) The survey found that ‘all age groups ( 6 old ages old, 9 old ages old and grownups ) used similar intuitive operations ‘ . The writer suggests that there is similar intuitive potency for the instruction of judgment/ determination in kids and grownups ( Schlottmann A. , 2001 ) . This survey does non include hazard factor, which can significantly impact chance perceptual experience. Levin and Hart ( Levin et al. , 2003, 2007 ) addressed the inquiry about the age that kids should be provided with the hazard information at and when they become capable to grok hazard information, and chance issues in peculiar. Research workers used cups ‘ undertaking game where chance is conveyed by the figure of cups from which choose. The research found that 6-year-old kids make their determinations on the footing of both chance and result information, nevertheless they made more hazardous picks than grownups ( they parents ) . On the footing of old surveies current writers ( Levin et al. , 2007 ) and others ( e. g. Harbaugh et al. , 2002, Reyna, V. F. , & A ; Ellis, S. C. , 1994, Schlottmann, A. , & A ; Tring J. , 2007 ) concluded that immature kids possess the basic apprehension and the ability to see both chance and outcome information in footings of hazard associated decision-making procedure. Furthermore they anticipate that future research will be able to â€Å" track how different phases of impersonal development individually impact the emotional and cognitive constituents of adaptative determination devising † ( Levin et al. , 2007 ) . Latest surveies by Figner and co-workers seem to corroborate that there is still a deficiency of indispensable research looking into â€Å" the mechanism underlying developmental differences in hazardous determination devising † , there is still non plenty informations on single differences in hazard pickings, such as trust on affective/deliberative schemes and information usage which could take this procedure ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . Ulph and co-workers carried on research to happen out how hazard should be communicated to kids, comparing different formats of chance information. Similarly to earlier research workers ( Levin et al. , 2007 ) , she used cup game test to analyze child ability to grok complex hazard information fig. 24 ( a, B, degree Celsius ) . â€Å" In each test the kid was asked to choose the cup which was most likely to hold a ball underneath it based on the chance provided under each cup. The kids were asked if they recognised each format and whether they required an account † ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . If the kid selected the cup with the highest chance depicted below it the kid was given one point. The survey showed that there was a important relationship between format and comprehension tonss and kids performed significantly better when chance was presented as a pie chart, in comparing to per centums, proportion – notation, proportion-word and assorted format tests. Furthermore, most kids ( 84 % ) got all tests correct for this format and kids were significantly more certain that their response was r ight in the pie chart tests compared to all the other formats ( P & lt ; 0.001 ) † ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . Figure 24a. Illustration of one cup game test ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) Figure 24b. Illustration of a pie chart format test in which the visible radiation subdivision indicates the likeliness of the ball being under that cup. ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . Figure 24c Illustration of assorted format test ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . The consequences of Fiona Ulph and co-workers ‘ surveies suggest â€Å" that 7-11 twelvemonth olds can understand chance information, but that the format used will significantly impact the truth and assurance with which kids in this age group make opinions about the likeliness of an event. Of the formats studied, pie charts appear to be the optimum method of showing probabilistic information to kids in this age group † . She concludes that wellness professionals and interior decorators of wellness messages should be cognizant of this when pass oning medical information to kids aged 7-11 old ages old ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . Figner and co-workers investigated hazard taking and underlying information usage in 13- to 16- and 17- to 19-years-old striplings and grownups, utilizing a fresh dynamic risk-taking undertaking, the Columbia Card Task ( CCT ) , fig. 25 ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . They used digital based tests of hazardous cart game ; smileys ( emoticons ) mark the successfully exposed cards. Figure 25. Screenshots of the hot ( left panel ) and cold ( right panel ) Columbia Card Task ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . As shown in Figure 25, both the hot and the cold versions of the CCT involve 32 cards, displayed in four rows of 8 cards each. At the beginning of each test, all cards are shown face down. The regulations of the game are as follows: Within a given test, cards can be turned over every bit long as addition cards are encountered. Each addition card adds a specified addition sum to the test final payment, and the participant can voluntarily halt the test at any point and claim the obtained final payment. Equally shortly as a loss card is encountered, the test terminates ; that is, no more cards can be turned over and a specified loss sum is subtracted from the old final payment. The top of the screen displays the undermentioned information for a given test: figure of concealed loss cards ( out of 32 ) , sum of addition per addition card, sum of loss, and current test figure. A full factorial within-subject design varied the three game parametric quantities or factors between tests: ( a ) chance of a loss ( 1, 2, or 3 loss cards ) , ( B ) addition sum ( 10, 20, or 30 points per addition card ) , and ( degree Celsius ) loss sum ( 250, 500, or 750 points ) . Showing each of the 27 combinations of factor degrees twice resulted in 54 tests, with the tests indiscriminately ordered within each of the two blocks of 27 tests ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . The research showed that there is no important difference in footings of doing picks in cold ( more deliberative ) or hot ( affectional ) quandary state of affairss, they seem to react every bit. Furthermore, as observed in this survey â€Å" hazard pickings occurs when the urge from the affectional system overrides deliberative urges to avoid hazard † and besides relaying excessively much on deliberation can take to â€Å" increased hazard taking in striplings in state of affairss in which grownups would ne'er of all time see the pros and cons but instinctively would avoid a hazard because of strong fright response † ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . As it was mentioned before Figner hopes that farther research will convey more information on childhood, adolescence and maturity hazard perceptual experience and its developmental passages. 3.4.4 Decision Harmonizing to bing surveies different ocular tools can impact people ‘s hazard perceptual experience, nevertheless how people perceived hazards would non impact their picks, the determination doing procedure can differ harmonizing to age groups. Therefore developing in writing format for hazard communicating we need to take into history patients age, literacy degree, their life manners, backgrounds, or single penchants to supply most comprehensive and accessible information to help them to doing appropriate determinations. Thus multidimensionality of hazard requires coactions between assorted subjects and administrations. All research workers urge that farther research is needed and anticipate that country of ocular hazard communicating for doing informed picks will go on to spread out and develop..

Strategic Management in Non Profit Making Organization

Introduction Strategic Management is the process by which managers make the choice of a set of strategies that will enable it to achieve better performance. The context of strategic management can be defined as the societal role of the organization, environmental, technological and human resource factors. With changes in a context, a unique set of managerial constraints arise (Stevens & McGowan, 1983). Context influences the nature of managerial behavior: the actions of a manager in arriving at a decision regarding how to deal with a given context.The way that a strategic plan is developed depends on the nature of the organization's leadership, culture of the organization, complexity of the organization's environment, size of the organization and expertise of planners. The not-for-profit sector is extremely diverse in terms of the organizations it encompasses and the work it undertakes. In recent years, there has been a substantial increase in the creation and consolidation of non-pr ofit organizations of various sizes, with diverse objectives and different scopes of action.More often than not, these organizations are managed by individuals who are dedicated or committed to the company's goals but have not had the opportunity to undergo specific training for this purpose. There are diverse types of non-profit organizations globally e. g. hospitals, social, cultural and political organizations. Most of the NGOs startups will usually come up with a strategy formulation paper which will consist of the vision, goals and objectives, implementation strategies and the budgets. This is because most of them are funded through grants and donations which will normally require a well done funds mobilization proposal. Related essay: â€Å"Support Positive Risk Taking For Individuals†However, most of them are less likely to engage in procedural strategic management implementation as a formal exercise. Also, these organizations are less likely to exhibit the features of a sound strategic plan as follows: †¢ Whereas one of the features of strategic planning is the long term nature of these plans, most of the non-profit organizations tend to be managed more on a short-term operational basis rather than in a strategic sense. †¢ Secondly strategy formulation takes into account the customers and competitor behavior.For nonprofit organizations, the influence of their clients or customers is often limited. These organizations will normally decide what is best for their clientele/customers and implement. †¢ Whereas strategic management is dynamic and continuous, most NPO aren’t very receptive to changes. They are comfortable in their current positions and transformation is quite an uphill task for them. Most of them thrive on tradeoffs between efficiency/productivity vis a vis processes. They are mostly driven by their social and community focus and appeal more to the conscience. This in turn stifles innovation and productivity and may hamper the decision making process. However, this will also be determined by the leadership style of the leader. . Requirements for strategic planning in non-profit corporate strategies Non profit organizations, just as for business organizations, can and should be designed to bring success and avoid failure. This can be done by capitalizing on the strongest capabilities of the non-profit organization in question, and exploiting the greatest opportunities, while reducing risk associated with organizational weaknesses, and environmental threats.This shared understanding of the overall strategic situation of the organization gives a sound basis for strategic decision making. The primary requirement for an overall non-profit or ganization set of strategies is that they should be developed to cover two main dimensions, bringing success and avoiding failure when things go wrong. †¢ Non-profit strategies must give the organization a very good chance of hitting the target for satisfactory performance and even exceeding it. †¢ At the same time, strategic planning nonprofit style must not expose the particular rganization to such risks that its performance might fall below to that considered to be failure. Additionally strategic planning in non profit must have a set of strategies that meet these requirements- †¢ Make full use of all the organization's most impressive strengths. †¢ Correct or neutralize all major weaknesses. It must not be based on these weaknesses. †¢ Either eliminate or reduce the impact of all the major threats. †¢ Exploit any highly rated opportunity for enhancing non-profit performance. Be strictly practical and relevant to the precise strategic situation of th e particular non-profit organization, and hopefully be †¢ Imaginative in the sense of being able to engage staff in implementation, and stand out among similar non-profit organizations in some way, and not be a pale imitation of what everyone else is doing, so as to strengthen the community standing of the organization and its non-profit mission. The following are some of the strategic contexts for non-profit organizations. (i) Governorship The not-for-profit organizations are not governed by organic law (constitutions).Top management teams are empowered by the corporate charter to engage in strategy implementation. A direct link between strategy formulation and implementation and the active involvement of all relevant parties throughout the process is deemed to be essential to effective private sector policy making. (ii) Openness to External Environment Not-for-profit organizations even though open to the external environment, the chief executives or board directors may ignore contributions into policy formulation and implementation processes from the various stakeholders.Failure to consider such contributions does not necessarily put their careers into risk, neither the legitimacy nor the credibility of the organization. (iii)Clearly defined goals Not-for-profit organizations generally operate within the framework of a limited number of relatively stable goals such as growth, profitability or market share. As (Peters & Waterman, 1982) noted, the top managements of more effective organizations appear to focus their attention on a limited set of clearly defined objectives. (iv) Cultural orientation Strategy formulation is largely affected by culture in non-profit organizations.Informal processes are used; for example an outstanding performer awarded a bonus in a not-for-profit organization is received well and does not attract bickering from other staff. (v) Human Resource Strategies In non-profit organizations, the personnel system is not based on merit. Employment, reward and advancement are done haphazardly thus creating a dependency relationship between the junior and senior staff. (vi) Separation of functional authority Not-for-profit organizations do not have a separation of functional authority like in the public sector.The organizations may be run by the directors who have founded them. The directors make day to day decisions and could even head departments in the organization. (vii) Marketing Strategies for non profit organization †¢ Website platform. †¢ Social media †¢ Brand enthusiasm †¢ Newsletters †¢ Creative Viral Programs †¢ Monitring. REFERENCES Peters, T. J. , & Waterman, R. H. (1982). In Search of Excellence. New York: Harper & Row. Stevens, J. M. , & McGowan, J. R. (1983). Managerial Strategies in Municipal government Organizations. Academy of Management Journal.

Oscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray Essay - 1517 Words

The sensual imagery that occurs throughout the novel in connection with Dorian demonstrates how he tries to live surrounded by exquisite sensations. As Oscar Wilde once said, â€Å" Beauty is above genius, because it does not require understanding.† This shows that beauty is everything no matter who it s towards. Oscar Wilde was a well known author for his brilliant wit, his style in writing , and infamous imprisonment for homosexuality. He shows his great works in the novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, which is about how Dorian Gray meets Lord Henry Wotton at the studio of Basil Hallward, who uses Dorian as a model for one of his latest paintings. Lord Henry tells Dorian about epicurean views on life, and convinces him of the value of beauty above all other things in the world. The critical lens of beauty helps the reader come to the conclusion that Beauty through Oscar Wilde’s use of the beauty of objects, experiences and people all suggest that beauty has a meaningf ul place in The Picture of Dorian Gray. Oscar Wilde describes how Dorian Gray saw objects to simply show the wonders of beauty in something solid rather than something non existing and to life. When the novel opens in the gorgeous flower-filled rooms of Hallward s house they have been working on the handsome youth. This shows that the fresh flowers in the room show youth of beauty. On page 2, â€Å" But beauty, real beauty, ends where an intellectual expression begins.† This quotation said by Gray shows thatShow MoreRelatedOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1544 Words   |  7 Pagescelebrity I find that it is inevitable to avoid being a part of some sort of controversy. At the height of Oscar Wilde’s career is where he found himself in just that. Although Wilde’s novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray is praised today, in the late 1800s it was seen by others as a negative shift in society and literature. In the film â€Å"Wilde†, after the release of Th e Picture of Dorian Gray, Wilde’s wife Constance and his mother Jane have a conversation in regards to the novel that gives insight toRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1656 Words   |  7 Pagesstill embraced some radical views that today we would associate as prudishness and repression. In 1890, author Oscar Wilde wrote The Picture of Dorian Gray and submitted it to Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine. The magazine’s editor, J.M. Stoddert, immediately declined the novel and determined that it would offend the sensibilities of his readership (Wilde x). It was believed that Oscar Wilde’s book contained explicit sexual, especially homosexual, content which contradicted the time period of theRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1040 Words   |  5 PagesCorruption can do many things. It can lead to unstable lifestyles, pollute minds and bring on the downfall of just about anything or anyone. One of the best examples would be from the s tory, Dorian gray by Oscar Wilde. This story showed a young Dorian living his innocent life, only to be surrounded and influenced by the corrupt society around him and would ultimately lead to his demise. It is not easy to define corruption as a whole. But to narrow it down, corruption is mainly associated with briberyRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1049 Words   |  5 PagesKevin McElroyIn The Picture of Dorian Gray, the author Oscar Wilde relays the message to the reader that youth decays with age but value and beauty does not. The character Dorian Gray mourned his stage of youth through the portrait instead of having cherished the times he experienced. This use of symbolism through the portrait is Wilde s way of expressing this theme. This main symbol is the portrait itself as the author uses it to gradually reveal Dorian’s true identity. Dorian Gray is an attractiveRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1644 Words   |  7 PagesLooking back on Oscar Wilde s life, there are many realizations that he struggled finding something that suited him best with his type of work. A man of the 19th century, who is best known for his only novella The Picture of Dorian Gray and his play The Importance of Being Earnest as well as his infamous arrest, imprisonment and being a gay author leading to his downfall. Oscar Wilde who was known as a playwright, author, sometime poet, and also a not very motivated school student, still came toRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray2021 Words   |  9 PagesMcNeight English Lit II 3/1/15 Dorian Gray: A Battle With One’s Self Oscar Wilde’s â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† is a story that focuses on the journey of an innocent and pure man, and his downward spiral of giving into temptation and committing crime, and living a life of pleasure. The story is centered around the idea of aestheticism. Everything is beautiful, the thought of something having any kind of â€Å"moral† meaning is just absurd. â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† by Oscar Wilde both honors and condemnsRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1998 Words   |  8 PagesRackshana Sithirasenan Mr. Cimetta ENG4U1-01 24 November 2014 Dorian’s Pursuit Towards Hedonism Dorian Gray once told Henry The soul . . . can be bought, and sold. It can be poisoned, or made perfect (Wilde 213). Likewise, it would not be beneficial for one to sacrifice their soul with an exception of exchanging it in order to attain perfection. Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray explores the themes and ideologies of Hedonism and Aestheticism. Hedonists believe that pleasure is the mostRead MoreOscar Wilde s The Picture Of Dorian Gray1295 Words   |  6 Pages It is apparent that vanity, sin, and beauty are the key elements found in The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde. But, where do these elements originate from? What is the reason behind man’s internal need to pursue sin or his ideal sense of beauty that, on occasion, leads to his vanity? In The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde explores naturalism through the use of symbolism and the tools of characterization, such as speech, action, interiority, the narrator, and the actions of other charact ersRead MoreAnalysis of Oscar Wilde ´s The Picture of Dorian Gray590 Words   |  2 Pages The Picture of Dorian Gray The difference between art and life is quite simple, art is created and imagined by an artist and life is a representation of the living and the actuality of experiencing situations. Conversely, in the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde demonstrates how the main characters mistake art for life, and life for art. Through The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde reveals the proper perspective for life and art, art has the ability to stand alone in society withoutRead MoreLiterary Criticism Of Oscar Wilde s The Canterville Ghost And The Picture Of Dorian Gray Essay2157 Words   |  9 PagesAnalysis of characters, plot and literary criticism of Oscar Wilde’s Novel â€Å"The Canterville Ghost† and â€Å"The Picture of Dorian Gray† Oscar Wilde was an Irish playwright, novelist, poet, and critic. He is viewed as one of the best dramatists of the Victorian Era. Besides literary accomplishments, he is also famous, or perhaps or notorious, for his intelligence, showiness, and affairs with men. He was tried and imprisoned for his homosexual relationship (then considered a crime)